Written by Egyptologist. Last updated 7 October 2026. Every figure in this article is linked to its source.
Judaism in Egypt has a documented history of about 2,500 years, which makes it one of the oldest Jewish communities anywhere outside the land of Israel. Its record is written in Aramaic papyri from Aswan, Greek inscriptions from the Delta, some 400,000 manuscript pages from a single synagogue storeroom in Old Cairo, and the census returns of the modern Egyptian state.
It is also a history with a clear arc. A community that produced the first translation of the Bible, the philosopher Philo and the working life of Maimonides numbered 75,000 to 80,000 people in 1948 and fewer than ten today. This article sets out what is known, what is debated and what is often repeated but wrong, and it ends with the Jewish heritage sites you can still visit in Cairo and Alexandria.
Judaism in Egypt at a Glance
| Earliest mention of Israel in an Egyptian text | Merneptah Stele, about 1208 BC [1] |
|---|---|
| Earliest documented Jewish community in Egypt | Elephantine, Aswan; papyri dated 495 to 399 BC [2] |
| Earliest evidence of synagogues anywhere | Greek inscriptions from Schedia and the Fayum, 246 to 221 BC [3][4] |
| Cairo Geniza | About 400,000 manuscript pages, 193,000 of them at Cambridge [5][6] |
| Maimonides in Egypt | Arrived about 1166, died in Fustat on 13 December 1204 [7] |
| Jewish population in 1948 | 75,000 to 80,000 [8] |
| Jewish population today | Six to ten people, in Cairo and Alexandria [9] |
| Surviving synagogues | About 12, in Cairo and Alexandria [10] |
| Legal status | One of three religions recognised by the state, with Islam and Christianity [11][9] |
Before the Communities: Israel, the Exodus and the Evidence
The oldest reference to Israel outside the Bible is Egyptian. The victory stele of King Merneptah, found by Flinders Petrie in western Thebes in 1896, records in its closing lines that “Israel is laid waste, its seed is no more”. The hieroglyphs mark Israel as a people, not a city or a country, and the inscription dates to about 1208 BC. [1]
The Exodus is a different matter, and it deserves a straight answer. No Egyptian text and no excavation directly attests Joseph, the Israelite sojourn or a mass departure. Scholars disagree about what that silence means. Many archaeologists hold that Israel emerged largely within Canaan and that the story may preserve the memory of a smaller group who left Egypt. Others, among them the Egyptologist James Hoffmeier, argue that the Egyptian details in the narrative are authentic to the Ramesside period. [1][12]
What is not in doubt is that people from the Levant lived in the eastern Delta for centuries. Rulers with Semitic names, the Hyksos, governed from Avaris between about 1650 and 1550 BC. The Egyptian priest Manetho, quoted by Josephus, connected them with the ancestors of the Jews, but modern scholarship does not accept that identification. [13]
Elephantine: The First Jewish Community We Can Read
After Jerusalem fell to Babylon in 587/586 BC, the Book of Jeremiah places Judean refugees at Tahpanhes, Migdol, Memphis and in Upper Egypt. Tahpanhes is identified with Tell Defenneh, a frontier garrison of the 26th Dynasty in the eastern Delta. [14]
The first community that speaks in its own voice lived at the other end of the country, on Elephantine Island at Aswan. It was a garrison of Judean soldiers and their families guarding Egypt’s southern border. Their Aramaic papyri survive: marriage contracts, property deeds, loans and letters, the earliest dated 495 BC and the latest about 399 BC. When the community was founded is debated. Its own leaders wrote that their temple was already standing when the Persian king Cambyses conquered Egypt in 525 BC. [2][15]
That temple, dedicated to Yahu, stood beside the temple of the Egyptian god Khnum. In 410 BC the priests of Khnum, with the help of a Persian official, destroyed it. Three years later the community’s leader, Jedaniah, petitioned the governor of Judah for permission to rebuild. The reply allowed grain and incense offerings and said nothing of animal sacrifice. [15]
The archives are unusually personal. They follow a woman named Mibtahiah through three marriages and a temple official named Ananiah and his Egyptian wife Tamut over half a century. Most of the papyri are now in the Brooklyn Museum and in Berlin. [2][16] One letter of 419 BC is widely called the “Passover letter”, although the word Passover does not survive in the text and the Berlin museum notes that the reading is disputed. [17]
Alexandria: The Greatest Jewish City of the Ancient World
Under the Ptolemies, Jews settled across Egypt as soldiers, farmers, officials and merchants, and above all in Alexandria. Two Greek inscriptions, one from Schedia near Alexandria and one from Crocodilopolis in the Fayum, record the dedication of a Jewish “prayer house” on behalf of Ptolemy III and Queen Berenice. They date to 246 to 221 BC and are the earliest archaeological evidence for synagogues anywhere in the world. [3][4]
It was in Alexandria, in the third century BC, that the Torah was translated into Greek. The translation is known as the Septuagint, after the legend that seventy-two scholars produced it for Ptolemy II. It became the Bible of Greek-speaking Jews and later of the early Church.
The philosopher Philo, who lived from about 15 BC to AD 50, wrote that Jews occupied two of the city’s five districts and that not less than a million lived in Egypt. Historians treat the figure as rhetorical, though Jews may have made up a third or more of the city. [18] A second Jewish temple also operated in Egypt in these centuries, founded by the exiled priest Onias at Leontopolis in the Delta around 170 to 150 BC and closed by Rome in AD 73. [19]
Roman rule brought conflict. In AD 38 mobs attacked the Jewish quarters, and in AD 41 the emperor Claudius wrote to the city ordering the Alexandrians to leave the Jews in peace and the Jews to seek no further privileges. [20] The real catastrophe was the Diaspora Revolt of AD 115 to 117. Jewish tax receipts in Egypt stop in AD 116, property was confiscated, and the community was all but destroyed. [21] The Talmud remembers the great synagogue of Alexandria, with its seventy-one golden chairs, as something lost. [22]
A smaller community rebuilt itself in late antiquity. The church historian Socrates reports that the patriarch Cyril drove the Jews from Alexandria in AD 414 or 415. Modern historians doubt that the expulsion was total, and Jews were living in the city again by the time of the Arab conquest. [23][20]
Fustat, the Ben Ezra Synagogue and the Cairo Geniza
The Arab general Amr ibn al-As founded Fustat in 641, beside the Roman fortress of Babylon, and Jews settled there from the beginning. [24] Under Muslim rule Jews and Christians were protected communities that paid a poll tax and ran their own religious and legal affairs. From the later eleventh century the Jews of Egypt were led by an official known as the Head of the Jews, or Nagid. [25]
Fustat had three congregations: one following the rite of Palestine, one the rite of Iraq, and one of Karaites. The first is the building known today as the Ben Ezra Synagogue. A tradition holds that the site was bought from the Coptic Church in 882, though the Princeton Geniza Lab dates the synagogue’s foundation to the eleventh century. The present structure was rebuilt between 1889 and 1892. [5][24]
Its fame rests on a storeroom. Jewish custom forbids throwing away any writing that may bear the name of God, so worn documents were placed in a chamber called a geniza. In Fustat the community deposited almost everything it wrote, sacred or not, for some eight hundred years. The result is the Cairo Geniza: about 400,000 manuscript pages, most of them from between 950 and 1250. [5]
In May 1896 the Cambridge scholar Solomon Schechter recognised a leaf of the lost Hebrew text of Ben Sira among fragments bought in Cairo by the sisters Agnes Lewis and Margaret Gibson. He travelled to Egypt that winter and brought back the bulk of what remained. [26] Cambridge University Library holds 193,000 fragments today, and other large collections are in New York, Oxford, Manchester, Philadelphia and St Petersburg. [6] Because the Geniza preserved shopping lists, court records, school exercises and private letters alongside scripture, it is the single richest source for everyday life anywhere in the medieval Mediterranean.
Saadia Gaon and Maimonides
Two of the most important figures in Jewish thought were shaped by Egypt. Saadia Gaon was born in the Fayum in 882 and went on to lead the academy of Sura in Iraq. His Arabic translation of the Bible remained in use for a thousand years. [27]
Moses Maimonides was born in Córdoba in 1138, fled persecution in Spain and Morocco, and reached Egypt about 1166. He settled in Fustat, led the Jewish community and served as a physician at the Ayyubid court. He completed his law code, the Mishneh Torah, in 1180 and the Guide of the Perplexed in 1190, both in Egypt. He died in Fustat on 13 December 1204. [7] Letters and drafts connected with him were found in the Geniza.
Karaites
The Karaites accept the Hebrew Bible but not the rabbinic tradition of the Talmud. The movement arose in Iraq in the eighth and ninth centuries and was established in Egypt by the tenth. [28][29] Egypt’s Karaites remained a distinct community with their own quarter in Cairo into the twentieth century, numbering about 5,000 in 1948. [8]
Mamluks and Ottomans, 1250 to 1800
The Mamluk centuries were harder. Decrees of 1290 and 1301 barred Jews and Christians from government service, imposed distinctive dress and closed houses of prayer for a time. By the 1480s Italian Jewish travellers counted only a few hundred Jewish families in Cairo, about 5,000 people in all. [29]
The Ottoman conquest of 1517 and the arrival of Jews expelled from Spain revived the community. Cairo’s Jews celebrated a local festival, the Purim of Cairo, to mark their escape in 1524 from a rebel governor, Ahmed Pasha. [24] Rabbi David ibn Abi Zimra led the community in the first Ottoman generation, and the mystic Isaac Luria spent his youth in Egypt. By the time of Napoleon’s expedition in 1798 the Jews of Egypt numbered only about 3,000. [30]
The Modern Community, 1800 to 1948
The nineteenth century reversed the decline. Under Muhammad Ali and his successors, and after the opening of the Suez Canal, Jews from across the Ottoman Empire, Italy, Greece and Eastern Europe moved to Egypt. The first modern census, in 1897, counted 25,200 Jews. By 1927 there were 63,550. [30][31]
By 1948 the community numbered 75,000 to 80,000, concentrated in Cairo and Alexandria. [8] It was remarkably varied: Arabic-speaking families settled for centuries, Sephardim who spoke French, Italian or Ladino, about 5,000 Karaites and a smaller Ashkenazi group. Jewish families founded banks, department stores and sugar refineries, and Jewish artists were central to Egyptian cinema and music.
One fact shaped what followed. Only a minority of Egypt’s Jews held Egyptian citizenship. Many held foreign passports and many were stateless, even when their families had lived in Egypt for generations. [8][32]
Departure, 1948 to 1970
The community left Egypt in three waves, each tied to a war.
After the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, during which bombs in Cairo’s Jewish and Karaite quarters killed dozens of people and hundreds of Jews were interned, about 20,000 Jews left by 1950, roughly 14,000 of them for Israel. [8]
The second and largest wave followed the Suez Crisis of 1956. Some 45,000 to 55,000 Jews were still in Egypt. Hundreds were detained, at least 500 were formally expelled, Jewish-owned businesses were sequestered, and between 23,000 and 25,000 people left within months, most of them under pressure and not by formal order. About 7,000 remained by 1961. [32][8]
The third wave came with the war of 1967, when several hundred Jewish men were detained, some for up to three years. The 2,500 to 3,000 Jews then in Egypt fell to a few hundred. [32]
Those who left settled mainly in Israel, France, the United States, Brazil, Britain and Australia.
Judaism in Egypt Today
The United States Department of State, citing a local Jewish organisation, reported in its most recent survey that six to ten Jews live in Egypt, in Cairo and Alexandria. [9] The Cairo community has been led since 2013 by Magda Haroun. [33]
Egypt’s constitution names Islam as the religion of the state. Article 3 provides that the principles of the laws of Egyptian Christians and Jews are the main source of legislation governing their personal status and religious affairs, and national identity cards allow three entries: Muslim, Christian or Jewish. [11][9] It is therefore accurate to call Judaism one of three religions recognised by the state, and inaccurate to call it one of three official religions.
In recent years the Egyptian state has restored several Jewish monuments as part of the national heritage. The Maimonides Synagogue in Cairo was restored in 2010, the Eliyahu Hanavi Synagogue in Alexandria reopened on 10 January 2020, and the Ben Ezra Synagogue was reinaugurated on 31 August 2023. [34][35][9] In September 2023 the Cairo community celebrated Rosh Hashanah in public for the first time in seventy years. [9]
Jewish Heritage Sites You Can Visit in Egypt
Access rules change, and several synagogues open only by arrangement. Check before you travel, and carry your passport.
| Site | Where | What it is | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ben Ezra Synagogue | Old Cairo (Fustat) | Home of the Cairo Geniza; present building 1889 to 1892 | Restored and reopened 31 August 2023; open to visitors as a monument [9] |
| Sha’ar Hashamayim Synagogue | Adly Street, downtown Cairo | The main synagogue of modern Cairo, built 1899 to 1905 | Standing and maintained; visits by arrangement [36] |
| Maimonides (Rav Moshe) Synagogue | Harat al-Yahud, Cairo | Nineteenth-century building on the site linked with Maimonides | Restored by the state, completed March 2010 [34] |
| Eliyahu Hanavi Synagogue | Nabi Daniel Street, Alexandria | Founded 1354, rebuilt 1850; seats 700 | Restored for about EGP 65 million and reopened 10 January 2020 [35] |
| Bassatine Cemetery | Southern Cairo | Historic Jewish cemetery with origins traced to the 9th century | Conservation by ARCE and the Drop of Milk Association since 2020 [37] |
| Elephantine Island | Aswan | Site of the Judean garrison and its temple, 5th century BC | Open archaeological site |
| Tomb of Rabbi Yaakov Abu Hasira | Damanhour, Beheira | Tomb of a Moroccan rabbi who died in the 1880s | Annual festival banned by court ruling, 29 December 2014 [38] |
For the full list, see our guide to the synagogues of Egypt.
Jewish Population of Egypt, 1798 to Today
| Year | Population | Source |
|---|---|---|
| 1798 | About 3,000 | Landau [30] |
| 1882 | About 10,000 | Landau [30] |
| 1897 | 25,200 | Census, in Landau [30] |
| 1927 | 63,550 | Census, in Fedida [31] |
| 1947 | 65,639 | Census, regarded as an undercount [8] |
| 1948 | 75,000 to 80,000 | Beinin [8] |
| 1956 | 45,000 to 55,000 | Laskier; Beinin [32][8] |
| 1961 | About 7,000 | Laskier [32] |
| 1967 | 2,500 to 3,000 | Laskier [32] |
| 2023 | 6 to 10 | US Department of State [9] |
Timeline of Judaism in Egypt
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| c. 1208 BC | Merneptah Stele names Israel |
| 587/586 BC | Fall of Jerusalem; Judean refugees reach Egypt |
| 495 to 399 BC | Aramaic papyri of the Elephantine community |
| 410 BC | Temple of Yahu at Elephantine destroyed |
| 3rd century BC | Torah translated into Greek in Alexandria (the Septuagint) |
| 246 to 221 BC | Earliest synagogue inscriptions, Schedia and the Fayum |
| c. 170 BC to AD 73 | Temple of Onias at Leontopolis |
| AD 38 | Anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria |
| AD 115 to 117 | Diaspora Revolt; Egyptian Jewry devastated |
| AD 414/415 | Cyril acts against the Jews of Alexandria |
| 641 | Foundation of Fustat |
| 882 | Saadia Gaon born in the Fayum |
| c. 1166 | Maimonides arrives in Egypt |
| 1204 | Maimonides dies in Fustat |
| 1301 | Mamluk decrees on dress and houses of prayer |
| 1354 | Eliyahu Hanavi Synagogue founded in Alexandria |
| 1524 | Purim of Cairo |
| 1896 to 1897 | Solomon Schechter brings the Cairo Geniza to Cambridge |
| 1948 | Community at its peak, 75,000 to 80,000 |
| 1956 to 1957 | 23,000 to 25,000 Jews leave after the Suez Crisis |
| 1967 | Detentions and final large departure |
| March 2010 | Maimonides Synagogue restored |
| 10 January 2020 | Eliyahu Hanavi Synagogue reopens |
| 31 August 2023 | Ben Ezra Synagogue reopens |
Six Things Often Misreported About Judaism in Egypt
“Judaism is one of Egypt’s three official religions”
Islam is the only religion of the state. Judaism and Christianity are recognised religions whose own laws govern personal status. [11]
“The Arabs found 40,000 Jews in Alexandria in 641”
The figure comes from chroniclers writing three to eight centuries after the event, and the numbers differ from one version to the next. It shows that later writers remembered a large community. It is not a census. [20]
“Karaism began in the first century”
Karaism arose in eighth-century Iraq. Nor were most Egyptian Jews Karaites under the Mamluks: travellers in the 1480s counted several times as many Rabbanite families as Karaite ones. [28][29]
“25,000 Jews were expelled in 1956”
Between 23,000 and 25,000 left in 1956 and 1957. Formal expulsion orders were far fewer. Most people left under duress after detention, loss of work or sequestration of property. [32]
“Egypt set aside US$71 million to restore Jewish sites”
The sum of EGP 1.27 billion announced in December 2018 covered Pharaonic, Coptic, Islamic and Jewish monuments together, as the cabinet clarified days later. [39][40]
“The Elephantine Passover letter”
The papyrus of 419 BC gives instructions for a seven-day observance, but the word Passover is not preserved in it. [17]
Frequently Asked Questions
How old is Judaism in Egypt?
The earliest Jewish community that left its own records lived at Elephantine, Aswan, in the 5th century BC, about 2,500 years ago. Its leaders wrote that their temple already stood when Persia conquered Egypt in 525 BC.
How many Jews live in Egypt today?
Six to ten, in Cairo and Alexandria, according to the US Department of State’s 2023 religious freedom report. In 1948 the community numbered 75,000 to 80,000.
Is Judaism an official religion in Egypt?
Islam is the religion of the state. Judaism is one of three religions recognised by the state, with Islam and Christianity, and Article 3 of the constitution applies Jewish law to the personal status of Egyptian Jews.
Why did the Jews leave Egypt in the twentieth century?
They left in three waves, after the wars of 1948, 1956 and 1967. Detentions, loss of livelihoods, sequestration of property and formal expulsions all played a part, and most Egyptian Jews had no Egyptian citizenship to protect them.
What is the Cairo Geniza?
It is a store of about 400,000 manuscript pages kept for centuries in the Ben Ezra Synagogue in Old Cairo. It includes letters, contracts and scripture, mostly from 950 to 1250. The largest part, 193,000 fragments, is at Cambridge University Library.
Did Maimonides live in Egypt?
Yes. He arrived about 1166, lived in Fustat, served as a court physician and head of the Jewish community, wrote the Mishneh Torah and the Guide of the Perplexed there, and died in Fustat on 13 December 1204.
Can tourists visit synagogues in Egypt?
Yes. The Ben Ezra Synagogue in Old Cairo is open to visitors as a restored monument. The Eliyahu Hanavi Synagogue in Alexandria and the Sha’ar Hashamayim Synagogue in downtown Cairo can be visited by arrangement. Carry your passport.
Is there archaeological evidence for the Exodus?
No Egyptian text or excavation directly attests it. Scholars disagree on whether the story preserves a memory of a smaller group that left Egypt. The earliest Egyptian mention of Israel is the Merneptah Stele of about 1208 BC.
Seeing It for Yourself
Old Cairo holds the Ben Ezra Synagogue, the Hanging Church and the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As within a few minutes’ walk of one another, which makes it the best single place in Egypt to understand how Christianity, Islam and Judaism grew side by side. If you would like to include Jewish heritage sites in Cairo, Alexandria or Aswan in a private itinerary, write to us and I will plan it with you.
How to cite this article
Essam Ali, “Judaism in Egypt: A 2,500-Year History”, Egypt Best Vacations, updated 7 October 2026, https://egyptbestvacations.com/judaism-in-egypt/. The tables on this page may be reproduced with a link to this page.
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